Month: February 2017

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Desert Skies Symposium 2017

The 2017 Desert Skies Symposium was held this past week (Feb. 23-25) at Arizona State University. It was a wonderful location with first class hosts. All attendees presented high quality research, and it was good to see a large group of Ph.D. students in attendance. Daniel Mockenhaupt (MME student) and I went to present the results of our latest study (see abstract below), and I am happy to say our research was well received. Dr. Clifford Madsen provided some excellent insight to what we are doing (thank you Dr. Madsen!). My thanks to all the wonderful people who attended this great conference. What is next? Stay tuned as Dr. Brian Russell and I will be presenting our latest research at the ISAME conference in Birmingham, UK this April.

Music Education in the United States: Perceptions from the K-12 Educational Community

Abstract

As the United States entered the new millennium, previous research suggested that music education struggled within the realm of public education (Music for All Foundation, 2004; Council for Basic Education, 2004). Given these realities, Ciorba and Seibert (2012) sought to examine the professional self-perceptions towards music education from members of the K-12 educational community in the state of Oklahoma. Results indicated that music teachers’ overall perceptions toward music education were significantly higher than those reported by the rest of the educational community (i.e., administrators, teachers of other subject areas, and support staff). When asked how they would improve music education, adminis­trators, music teachers, and support staff reported the need for increased music education funding while teachers of other subject areas recommended improvements in curriculum and scheduling. Since the publication of this study, recent research has revealed that music education continues to struggle within the K-12 curriculum. For example, Burrack (2014) revealed that 55% of the schools in Florida were operating with budget reductions between 2011 and 2012. As a result, 375 music-teaching positions were eliminated. West (2012) reported that music teachers often faced scheduling conflicts due to the emphasis placed on standardized test subjects. Furthermore, proposed budget cuts threatened to have a negative impact on music programs in the states of Minnesota (Hansen, 2015), Massachusetts (Cole, 2015), and Pennsylvania (Sylvester, 2015).

On a positive note, 94% of elementary schools, 92% of middle schools, and 93% of high schools in the state of Michigan continued to offer arts related courses (Quadrant Arts Education Research Project 2012). In the state of California, the Val Verde Unified School District resumed music instruction in the elementary schools (Ghori, 2014). Major (2013) examined a Michigan school district to determine the process used to keep their music program intact. It was determined that positive synergy in the educational community, high quality music teachers, and strong parental support played a large influence in administrators’ decisions to keep music education within the district.

Given the results of the previous research, a need exists to further examine the K-12 educational community’s perceptions towards the importance of music education at the nationwide level. Specifically, this study was designed to answer the following research questions:

  • What are the demographics of a nationwide sample as reported by the Music Education Perception Measure (MEPM)?
  • Do significant differences exist between administrators, music teachers, teachers of other subject areas, and support staff in regards to their perceptions toward music education?
  • What suggestions can members of the K–12 educational community offer to improve music education?

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), in connection with the United States Census Bureau offers a website that includes an online database (http://nces.ed.gov), which lists all K-12 public school districts in the United States. Using this information, a stratified random sample of 10 districts per state was chosen based on the characteristics of each state population. Once a list of school districts was assembled, the researchers visited every school website within each of the chosen districts and compiled an email list of 178,444 administrators, music teachers, teachers of other subject areas, and support staff.

In January of 2016, an invitation containing a description of the study and a link to the Music Education Perception Measure (MEPM) was sent to every email address through Survey-Monkey. The MEPM consists of 17 statements designed to measure participants’ personal self-perceptions towards the importance of music education. Each statement was aligned with the following response items: (a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Agree, and (d) Strongly Agree. Those who received the email message were informed their participation was completely voluntary. Two follow-up emails were sent one week apart from the initial invitation to those who had not completed the survey. The survey remained opened throughout the Spring 2016 semester. The final sample (N = 6.089) included (a) 338 administrators, (b) 631 music teachers, (c) 4,044 non-music teachers, and (d) 1,075 support staff.

Results were similar to those reported by Ciorba and Seibert (2012) in that music teachers’ overall perceptions towards music education were significantly higher than those reported by administrators, teachers of other subject areas, and support staff. In addition, while participants representing all four groups indicated increased funding as one of their top responses, administrators, secondary non-music teachers, and support staff also indicated a need to increase students’ accessibility to music classes through improved scheduling.

 

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Sociology of Education: Major Theories and Their Connection to School Practice (Froehlich, Chapter 6)

What is the function of schools in our society? It is obvious there is no single answer to this question, although sociologists of education have produced several theories pertaining to the function and values of our schools. The primary purpose of this chapter is to illuminate the function of our schools through a discussion of functionalist theory, conflict theory, and interactionist theory.

Functionalist Theory

Society relies on its institutions, and the role of school is to teach the values and behaviors needed to be productive members of society. Education is necessary for public survival. Within this framework, students are the learners and teachers are the instructors. The educational system is made up of a variety of social groups (e.g., teachers, administrators, and students). Each group is expected to perform in a certain manner by following prescribed codes of behavior, and the expectations of behaviors for young adolescents can be quite strict. Two studies by Coleman (1961, 1966) investigated the socialization process of the adolescent population. It was discovered that the secondary socialization of adolescents has a “life of its own” (Froelich, p. 82), which is intimately connected to society as a whole. Coleman’s second study addressed the issues of achievement within a racially diverse population. To this day, Coleman’s research underlines the connection between education and politics.

Conflict Theory

The most noteworthy predecessors of conflict theory in education are Karl Marx and Max Weber. According to conflict theory, knowledge and skills are best acquired when a learner needs them. This can be accomplished in and out of the classroom. Student empowerment is key. Conflict theory also recognizes the tensions that exist between groups and individuals. According to Froehlich, such tensions can isolate the “haves” from the “have nots,” and these tensions will not be alleviated until change is brought about by force. The economic disparities between schools have brought about various efforts to marginalize the educational system. Consider the busing issue of the 1970s, or the attempts at even tax distribution in the 1990s. Today, it is quite likely we will see the issue of school vouchers (a longstanding political wedge issue) to once again predominate the headlines.

Interactionist Theory

Interactionist theory is often perceived as a combination of functionalist theory and conflict theory. School efficiency is achieved when students are allowed to learn at a pace that is comfortable and manageable. Students are empowered to attain their fullest potential. This theory also addresses the consequences that can result from a educational system the has the responsibility of teaching students who represent a variety of socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. As such, this discussion is not complete without addressing the hidden curriculum, which entails educational “givens” that send inadvertent messages. These messages may lead to hidden learning results. According to Froehlich, “Certain types of knowledge are valued over other types of knowledge” (p. 85). Students who retain the correct knowledge will attain academic success. The hidden curriculum involves teaching towards a “cultural capital” that is not accessible to all students. Can you think of any examples?

What is Our Role?

Teachers and students relate to their environment through their actions (dress, diet, music, body language, etc.).  Role-playing provides us with a means to interact with others (John Dewey was a huge advocate of this approach). Consider the roles you play as a teacher. Have you experienced conflict between these roles? As we have discussed throughout the semester, schools are complex systems that help us to maintain and advance the world in which we live. As teachers, I encourage all of us to be familiar with the discourse exhibited by our colleagues throughout the educational community. Doing so will help us to improve our role in the workplace. For your weekly assignment, please do the following:

  1. Read the sixth chapter of the Froehlich text, which is titled, Sociology of Education: Major Theories and Their Connection to School Practice.
  2. Post a thread (500 words minimum) by 11:59 p.m. on Friday, March 3rd. Do not attempt to summarize the entire chapter.  Instead, try to expand on a particular topic within the chapter that is of interest to you.
  3. By 11:59 p.m. on Sunday, March 5th, please post a response (200 word minimum) to TWO threads created by your classmates.

As you work on this chapter, please feel free to draw from following statements and questions:

  • Discuss the pros and cons of functionalism, conflict, and interaction theory in dealing with explaining the status quo of public school education on the one hand and calling for major curricular reforms on the other.
  • Discuss the meaning of ‘devaluing’ a person. Give examples where that can happen during music instruction and find hypothetical solutions to such instances.
  • Describe the relative merits of constructivism as a perspective for music education practice and compare to it current practice as you know it.

Froehlich, H. C. (2007). Sociology for music teachers: Perspectives for practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

 

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Musical Meaning and Social Context: Thoughts by Selected Ethnomusicologists and Cultural Theorists (Froehlich, Chapter 5)

Culture: an interesting term that can inspire different meanings from a variety of people. From a musical perspective, some scholars have separated the term into two meanings: (a) culture (music that is part of a person’s life) and (b) Culture (“high” culture, which is often associated with Western classical music). Froehlich (2007) draws upon the scholarly writings of several prominent ethnomusicologists and cultural theorists to explain how both viewpoints can co-exist in our postmodern society, and more importantly, the field of education. Before we move any further with this discussion, let us note that scholarship from ethnomusicologists tend to take a microsociological perspective while cultural theorists often promote the macrosociological perspective.

The Ethnomusicologists

Charles Seeger (1886-1979) was a social activist who studied the American folksongs of rural America. Seeger stressed the importance of music’s social relevance in relation to its people. By developing a deep understanding of the music within your own culture, you can attain true musicianship. His views were unique in that he addressed the similarities among various musical cultures as opposed to the differences. John Blacking (1928-1990) made a name for himself in the field of ethnomusicology by completely immersing himself in the Venda culture of South Africa for a decade and a half. As a result of his efforts, Blacking developed what is known as the cultural analysis of music. He saw value in learning music informally through cultural immersion and imitation. Eileen Southern (1920-2002) was a music historian who studied the legacy of popular and classical music and how it helped to define African American culture in the United States. Her book, which is titled The Music of Black Americans, is a valuable resource for all music educators who are interested in teaching the music of this rich and valued heritage.

The Cultural Theorists

John Shepherd, a cultural theorist, understood the value of popular music from a sociological perspective. According to Shepherd, people often convey their previous experiences when listening to a piece of music. As a result, people are able to construct their own meaning from the music. This is referred to as the construction of meaning, and Shepherd believed music educators could help students use past experiences to develop musical meaning in the classroom. Christopher Small believes people develop musical meaning through actual performance (i.e., musicking). By engaging in the process of music making, people develop important social relationships. Different performances convey different rituals, and the roles of the performer and listener are of vital importance. Music educators who advocate this position are encouraged to have their students participate in informal music making activities that are meaningful to them.

By analyzing musical forms in relation to gender, narratives, and politics, Susan McClary maintains Small’s views from the feminist perspective. Like Small, she believes musical and social meanings are interconnected. Music reflects shifting perceptions about gender and sexuality, and these perceptions help us to describe ourselves.

Roger Scruton takes a position that is different from the others mentioned in this chapter in that he advocates for the representation of high culture as part of the core curriculum. Like Adorno, he is a formalist who believes musical meaning lies in the music itself. What may be seen as an elitist perspective of a previous era, Scruton’s beliefs are not without merit. For example, he emphasizes the importance of teaching music literacy. School music should highlight high culture, and music educators should not gratify students by addressing their interests in popular music, which are always subject to change.

What are your thoughts?

As musicians and teachers, it is natural for us to teach according to our own values, and perhaps the thoughts espoused by ethnomusicologists and cultural theorists can help us to refine our values. For your weekly assignment, please do the following:

  1. Read the fifth chapter of the Froehlich text, which is titled, Musical Meaning and Social Context: Thoughts by Selected Ethnomusicologists and Cultural Theorists
  2. Post a thread (500 words minimum) by 11:59 p.m. on Friday, February 24th. Do not attempt to summarize the entire chapter.  Instead, try to expand on a particular topic within the chapter that is of interest to you.
  3. By 11:59 p.m. on Sunday, February 26th, please post a response (200 word minimum) to TWO threads created by your classmates.

As you work on this chapter, please feel free to draw from following statements and questions:

  • Develop arguments in support of Scruton’s position that the purpose of schooling is to focus on teaching music from the perspective of “high culture” alone.
  • In light of the viewpoints outlined in this chapter, voice your own position and articulate your allegiance, if any, with one of the individuals introduced in this chapter. If you had a chance to visit with any of them, what would you like to comment on most immediately? What criticism of concerns would you have?

Froehlich, H. C. (2007). Sociology for music teachers: Perspectives for practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Music and Social Context (Froehlich, Chapter 4)

When discussing music and social context, Froehlich draws upon the important connections between philosophical and sociological perspectives in Western music. Since our course is sociological in nature, please allow me to offer a few traditional philosophical approaches, which provide a basis for establishing the meaning of music:

  • Referentialism: Musical meaning is extrinsic. Musical meaning is derived from nonmusical factors (e.g., objects or ideas).
  • Expressionism: Musical meaning is extrinsic. Musical meaning is derived from emotional states.
  • Formalism: Musical meaning is intrinsic. Musical meaning is derived from the music itself (e.g., volume, pitch, theory).
  • Absolute Expressionism: Musical meaning is intrinsic. Music may contain extrinsic attributes, but they are a direct result of music’s intrinsic qualities.

Weber and Adorno’s influence in the sociology of music plays a predominant role in this chapter. Weber suggests that musical meaning is intrinsic. He also set forth the idea that Western classical music is superior to non-Western pitch systems. Please keep in mind that recent philosophical thought has drifted away from perspectives that support musical superiority. For example, Nattiez (1990) states, music can be whatever you want it to be. Music can be defined through a process that is unrestricted, and each culture is responsible for defining music in accordance to their values.

Adorno, a member of the Frankfurt School of critical theory, drew a line between classical and popular music. Specifically, since the marketplace manipulates the role of popular music in Western society, such music cannot provide an authentic listening experience to its audience. I have always been intrigued by Adorno’s thoughts on the market’s control of popular music, and given the manner in which the recording industry has changed over the past 17 years in reaction to file sharing, streaming, and the Internet, how would you interpret Adorno’s views today?

Froehlich refers to additional texts (Silbermann, Supicic, Kaplan, Etzkorn, etc.), and I encourage you to take all of these thoughts into consideration when making your curricular choices. By establishing informed curricular decisions based on sociological theory, you ensure that what you teach is musically, socially, and educationally relevant (Froehlich, 2007, p. 63). Most importantly, does the music you teach connect to the lives and experiences of your students?

For your weekly assignment, please do the following:

  • Read the fourth chapter of the Froehlich text, which is titled, Music and Social Context: Macro, Micro, and Interactive Perspectives in Selected Texts on the Sociology of Music.
  • Post a thread (500 words minimum) by 11:59 p.m. on Friday, February 17th. Do not attempt to summarize the entire chapter.  Instead, try to expand on a particular topic within the chapter that is of interest to you.
  • By 11:59 p.m. on Sunday, February 19th, please post a response (200 word minimum) to TWO threads created by your classmates.

As you work on this chapter, please feel free to draw from following statements and questions:

  • Find examples of dialectic logic and living in your everyday life.
  • Consider what high school students nowadays might call “authentic music.” What is authentic music in your own experience? How useful is the term in your view to determine what to include in music listening lessons for a middle school general music classroom?
  • Discuss your view of the relationship between music as a leisure pursuit and music as a school subject. Identify similarities and differences as you have experienced them.
  • In your point of view, how useful is it to distinguish between commercial and aesthetic purposes of music? Where and how would such a distinction be beneficial in setting curricular goals and objectives?
  • Which of the books described in this chapter are most relevant to you and why?

Froehlich, H. C. (2007). Sociology for music teachers: Perspectives for practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Nattiez, J. J. (1990). Music and discourse: Toward a semiology of music (C. Abbate, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

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Music Learning and Teaching as Socially Situated Acts (Froehlich, Chapter 3)

Take a moment to consider the terms teaching and learning. While doing so, please reflect on Froehlich’s statement, where she indicates it is a common belief in our profession that both terms are “nearly indistinguishable from each other” (p. 37). This certainly can be the case when examining self-taught musicians, but think about the teaching and learning that occurs in your own music classroom. While much of what is learned is indeed a result of your instruction, it is important to consider the other variables that play a role in the teaching and learning process. Do some of your students come from a home environment where music learning is encouraged through supportive parental involvement? Do some of your students perform in a church group or a garage band? When students rehearse and perform in your ensembles, are some of them simply faking it? Even if we can come up with legitimate answers to these questions, it is difficult to determine if teaching and learning are completely aligned in the music classroom.

Music learning outside of the classroom can be accomplished through casual listening, having conversations about music, and active music making. With all of this musical activity occurring outside of school, it is apparent that music is an important part of our culture. As a result, students arrive in your classroom with a clear set of music preferences. Taking this into consideration, I believe music educators should be encouaged to develop a clear set of instructional goals pertaining to the styles of music they want their students to learn (and hopefully appreciate). When students and teachers share common musical values, it is more likely that students will be motivated to learn. Motivation plays a critical role in the learning process. According to Asmus (1994), it is estimated that 11 to 27 percent of achievement in schools can be credited to motivation.

Froehlich goes on to discuss the role of music teachers as bridge builders between music communities in and out of a formal school setting. Three sociological perspectives are outlined in this discussion, and they include the macro, micro, and interactive views.

  • Macro View: The birds eye view, which involves the development of theoretical and broad-based perspectives.
  • Micro View: The bottoms-up view, which examines the behaviors of individuals to gain a better perspective of society.
  • Interactionist View: Utilizes both the macro and micro views as a means to examine the large patterns of a society (macro) and the efforts put forth by individuals (micro). Usually longitudinal in design.

For your weekly assignment, please do the following:

  • Read the third chapter of the Froehlich text, which is titled, Music Learning and Teaching as Socially Situate Acts.
  • Post a thread (500 words minimum) by 11:59 p.m. on Friday, February 10th. Do not attempt to summarize the entire chapter.  Instead, try to expand on a particular topic within the chapter that is of interest to you.
  • By 11:59 p.m. on Sunday, February 12th, please post a response (200 word minimum) to TWO threads created by your classmates.

As you work on this chapter, please feel free to draw from following questions:

  • How do you react to different types of music present in today’s culture with which you are not very familiar? How would you educate yourself about such music in a way that you would allow yourself to incorporate it in your teaching?
  • Considering the different styles of music that exist side-by-side in our society, take the position of a macro-sociologist, a micro-sociologist, and an interactionist. Discuss how they might suggest we teach about music as a social phenomenon. Include in your discussion how each of the three perspectives might impact research on the diversity of musical styles in our society.

Asmus, E. P. (1994). Motivation in music teaching and learning. The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning, 5(4), 5-32.

Froehlich, H. C. (2007). Sociology for music teachers: Perspectives for practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ:p Pearson Education, Inc.